A Life Less than Liberating: The Lowell Mill Girls

America had to find a solution to the problem of processing their nation’s cotton produced in the southern states after import ties had been severed with Britain following the Embargo of 1807 and the War of 1812. A group of investors known as the Boston Associates decided to create textile factories in New England that could process all phases of cotton production. According to Eric Foner, “by 1850, the factory town of Lowell was booming with fifty two cotton mills.” Its female labor force was comprised of young unmarried women from New England farming families. The company built boarding houses for these laborers, where they lived together after toiling endless hours in the cotton mills. The companies established and enforced strict rules for their young laborers, which virtually controlled their lives on and off the company clock. As a result of their shared work experiences and the opportunity to communicate with each other in the boarding houses, a sisterhood developed, which eventually grew into a women’s labor movement.

The first wave of female mill laborers welcomed the idea that they could leave home and earn money, which would allow them to become more independent members of society. Through their written correspondence with family and friends, it is indicated that life in the mills although strictly regimented was somewhat tolerable. The numerous word misspellings and grammatical errors in a notable percentage of the archived letters suggest a low level of education. For women in the early eighteen hundreds, their gender roles were set by a patriarchal society. They could expect lives that centered within the home taking care of husbands and children. It seems reasonable that the option of working in the cotton mills would appeal to a certain number of young women at that time who perhaps desired more than such lives of forced domesticity. According to Eric Foner, “most valued the opportunity to earn money independently at a time when few other jobs were open to women.”

Mill workers like Matilda Clark confessed their homesickness, discontent with heavy toil, and strict company rules. As she writes to her friend Amanda Lunt it is easily ascertained that life in the Lowell mills is anything but liberating:

WRITTEN BY MATILDA CLARK1 TO AMANDA S. LUNT2
Lowell3 Oct 8th 1848
Dear Amanda,
I dar say you will be surprised to know that I am in Lowell but I am very homesick and think I shall not stay very long when I got to Boston I found business very dull and my sister Mary, there she wanted me to go to Lowell and here I am now writing to you on the bank of the Concord river a beautiful little stream that runs by the house it is a very pleasant situation but fore all that I am not contented I want to see you very much with all the rest of the family. I should like to here from you very much how the school comes on and all about the folks thare whare Abner4 is and how he mad out Catching Mackril. I have been in the mill to work. I do not like it at all and I expect all of you are glad of it for I might stayt at home and I wish I had I hope your mothers5 is as good as comon I have often thought of her since I have left your home. I had a good time in Bost I stayd thare over fortnight I have no time to write more I suppose you will get this next spring.
write as soon as you receive this
From your friend Matilda

Two documents that caused such frustration and discontent in the Lowell Mill female labor force included the boarding house rules and factory rules as follows:

HAMILTON COMPANY – BOARDINGHOUSE RULES FROM THE HANDBOOK TO LOWELL, 1848
REGULATIONS FOR THE BOARDINGHOUSES of the Hamilton Manufacturing Company. The tenants of the boarding-houses are not to board, or permit any part of their houses to be occupied by any person, except those in the employ of the company, without special permission.
They will be considered answerable for any improper conduct in their houses, and are not to permit their boarders to have company at unseasonable hours.
The doors must be closed at ten o'clock in the evening, and no person admitted after that time, without some reasonable excuse.
The keepers of the boardinghouses must give an account of the number, names and employment of their boarders, when required, and report the names of such as are guilty of any improper conduct, or are not in the as are guilty of any improper conduct, or are not in the regular habit of attending public worship.
The buildings, and yards about them, must be kept clean and in good order; and if they are injured, other-wise than from ordinary use, all necessary repairs will be made, and charged to the occupant.
The sidewalks, also, in front of the houses, must be kept clean, and free from snow, which must be removed from them immediately after it has ceased falling; if neglected, it will be removed by the company at the expense of the tenant.
It is desirable that the families of those who live in the houses, as well as the boarders, who have not had the kine pox, [smallpox] should be vaccinated, which will be done at the expense of the company, for such as wish it.
Some suitable chamber in the house must be reserved, and appropriated for the use of the sick, so that others may not be under the necessity of sleeping in the same room.
JOHN AVERY, Agent.

HAMILTON COMPANY - FACTORY RULES FROM THE HANDBOOK TO LOWELL, 1848
REGULATIONS TO BE OBSERVED by all persons employed in the factories of the Hamilton Manufacturing Company. The overseers are to be always in their rooms at the starting of the mill, and not absent unnecessarily during working hours. They are to see that all those employed in their rooms, are in their places in due season, and keep a correct account of their time and work. They may grant leave of absence to those employed under them, when they have spare hands to supply their places, and not otherwise, except in cases of absolute necessity.
All persons in the employ of the Hamilton Manufacturing Company are to observe the regulations of the room where they are employed. They are not to be absent from their work without the consent of the over-seer, except in cases of sickness, and then t hey are to send him word of the cause of their absence. They are to board in one of the houses of the company and give information at the counting room, where they board, when they begin, or, whenever they change their boarding place; and are to observe t he regulations of their boarding-house.
Those intending to leave the employment of the company are to give at least two weeks' notice thereof to their overseer.
All persons entering into the employment of the company are considered as engaged for twelve months, and those who leave sooner, or do not comply with all these regulations, will not be entitled to a regular discharge.
The company will not employ any one who is habitually absent from public worship on the Sabbath, or known to be guilty of immorality.
A physician will attend once in every month at the counting-room, to vaccinate all who may need it, free of expense.
Any one who shall take from the mills or the yard, any yarn, cloth or other article belonging to the company, will be considered guilty of stealing and be liable to prosecution.
Payment will be made monthly, including board and wages. The accounts will be made up to the last Saturday but one in every month, and paid in the course of the following week.
These regulations are considered part of the contract, with which all persons entering into the employment of the Hamilton Manufacturing Company, engage to comply.
JOHN AVERY, Agent.

In addition, the daily timetable of bell ringings signaling when and for what duration to wake, eat, work, and sleep created growing irritation. As Eric Foner states, "the constant supervision of the worker's private lives seems impossibly restrictive."
As a result, Lowell Mill laborers began striking against their long work days, low wages, and poor working conditions such as unsafe equipment, poor lighting, and foul air. Although it was an uphill battle going against the powerful cotton mill companies, what their efforts proved is that united they had a stronger voice.

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